CANCERS

Overview of Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is one of the most common cancers worldwide and the leading cause of cancer-related deaths among women. It develops when abnormal cells in the breast tissue grow uncontrollably, often forming a lump or mass. While it predominantly affects women, men can also develop breast cancer, though it is rare.
 

Types of Breast Cancer
 

Breast cancer is classified based on where it originates and its characteristics:

Based on Origin:
 

1. Ductal Carcinoma:
 

• Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS):

Non-invasive cancer confined to the milk ducts.
 

• Invasive Ductal Carcinoma (IDC):

The most common type, starting in the milk ducts and spreading to surrounding tissues.
 

2. Lobular Carcinoma:
 

• Lobular Carcinoma In Situ (LCIS):

A marker of increased breast cancer risk, not a true cancer.
 

• Invasive Lobular Carcinoma (ILC):

Starts in the milk-producing glands (lobules) and can spread.

3. Other Types:
 

• Triple-Negative Breast Cancer:

Lacks estrogen, progesterone, and HER2 receptors, making it harder to treat.
 

• HER2-Positive Breast Cancer:

Overexpresses the HER2 protein, which promotes aggressive growth.
 

• Inflammatory Breast Cancer:

A rare, aggressive type causing redness and swelling of the breast.
 

• Paget’s Disease of the Nipple:

Rare cancer involving the skin of the nipple and areola.

Risk Factors
 

Breast cancer risk factors can be divided into modifiable and non-modifiable categories:

Non-Modifiable Risk Factors:
 

Gender:

• Women are at higher risk than men.
 

Age:

• Risk increases with age, especially after 50.
 

Genetic Mutations:

• BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations significantly raise the risk.
 

Family History:

• Having a first-degree relative with breast cancer increases risk.
 

Personal History:

• A history of breast cancer or benign breast conditions increases recurrence risk.
 

Hormonal Factors:

• Early menstruation (before age 12) or late menopause (after age 55).

Modifiable Risk Factors:
 

Lifestyle:

• Lack of physical activity, obesity, and poor diet.
 

Alcohol Consumption:

• Higher alcohol intake increases risk.
 

Hormone Replacement Therapy (HRT):

• Long-term use of combined HRT is linked to higher risk.
 

Radiation Exposure:

• Exposure to radiation, especially during childhood.

Symptoms
 

Breast cancer symptoms vary, but common signs include:
 

• A lump or thickening in the breast or underarm.

• Changes in breast size, shape, or appearance.

• Nipple discharge (often bloody or clear).

• Redness, dimpling, or puckering of the breast skin.

• Inverted nipple or changes in the nipple’s appearance.

• Persistent breast pain or discomfort.

Diagnosis
 

Breast cancer is diagnosed through a combination of physical exams, imaging, and biopsies:
 

1. Screening and Imaging:

• Mammogram:

• A low-dose X-ray to detect early breast changes.

• Ultrasound:

• Used for further evaluation of lumps.

• MRI:

• Provides detailed images, especially for high-risk individuals.
 

2. Biopsy:

• Tissue samples are taken for histopathological examination to confirm cancer and its type.

3. Molecular and Genetic Testing:

• Identifies hormone receptor status (ER, PR) and HER2 status.

• Genetic testing for BRCA1, BRCA2, or other mutations in high-risk cases.

Staging

Breast cancer staging is based on tumor size, lymph node involvement, and metastasis (TNM system):
 

Stage 0:

• Non-invasive (DCIS).
 

Stage I:

• Early-stage invasive cancer, confined to the breast.
 

Stage II:

• Larger tumors or limited lymph node involvement.
 

Stage III:

• Locally advanced cancer with extensive lymph node involvement.
 

Stage IV:

• Metastatic cancer, spread to other parts of the body.

Treatment Options
 

Treatment depends on the cancer type, stage, and molecular characteristics, as well as the patient’s preferences and overall health.

Breast cancer remains one of the most prevalent cancers globally, affecting millions of lives each year. At Apollo Cancer Centres, we approach breast cancer treatment with a comprehensive understanding of both its medical and emotional impact on patients and their families.

Global breast cancer statistics indicate a rising incidence rate, particularly in developing nations. However, with early detection and advanced treatment options, survival rates have significantly improved. Our data from treating thousands of breast cancer patients across 147 countries helps us understand patterns and optimize treatment approaches.

Treatment approaches at Apollo are multifaceted and personalized:
 

Advanced surgical techniques, including oncoplastic surgery

State-of-the-art radiation therapy options

Targeted molecular therapies

Immunotherapy protocols

Hormone therapy when appropriate

Proton therapy for breast cancer represents a significant advancement in treatment. This sophisticated approach offers several unique advantages:
 

Precise targeting of tumor tissue while sparing the heart and lungs

Reduced radiation exposure to healthy breast tissue

Minimized risk of secondary cancers

Particularly beneficial for left-sided breast cancers

Improved cosmetic outcome

Prognosis
 

The prognosis for breast cancer varies by type and stage:

• Early detection (Stage 0 or I) has a 5-year survival rate of over 90%.

• Advanced stages (Stage III or IV) have lower survival rates, but new therapies have improved outcomes.

Prevention and Early Detection
 

1. Lifestyle Modifications:

• Maintain a healthy weight, exercise regularly, and limit alcohol consumption.
 

2. Regular Screening:

Mammograms:

• Recommended starting at age 40-50 for average-risk women, or earlier for high-risk individuals.

• Breast Self-Exams:
 

Help detect unusual changes early.
 

3. Genetic Testing and Risk Reduction:

• High-risk women (e.g., BRCA mutation carriers) may consider preventive mastectomy or medications like tamoxifen.
 

4. Breastfeeding:

• Linked to reduced breast cancer risk.

Read more about Breast Cancer

Lung cancer is one of the most common cancers worldwide and a leading cause of cancer-related deaths. It originates in the tissues of the lungs, typically in the lining of the airways. Lung cancer is classified into different types based on the cells in which it develops, and early detection and treatment are critical for improving survival rates.
 

Types of Lung Cancer

1. Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer (NSCLC):

Accounts for about 85% of lung cancers.
 

Includes the following subtypes:
 

Adenocarcinoma:

• Most common type, often found in the outer parts of the lung.

• More common in non-smokers.
 

Squamous Cell Carcinoma:

• Arises in the central parts of the lungs near the bronchi.

• Strongly linked to smoking.
 

Large Cell Carcinoma:

• A rare type that can occur anywhere in the lungs and tends to grow and spread quickly.
 

2. Small Cell Lung Cancer (SCLC):

• Represents about 10–15% of lung cancers.

• Also called oat cell cancer, it grows and spreads more rapidly than NSCLC.

• Almost exclusively associated with heavy smoking.

3. Other Types:

• Rare forms like lung carcinoid tumors (neuroendocrine tumors) and mesothelioma, which is associated with asbestos exposure.
 

Risk Factors
 

1. Smoking:

• The leading cause of lung cancer, responsible for approximately 80–90% of cases.

• Includes active smoking and exposure to secondhand smoke.

2. Environmental and Occupational Exposure:

• Radon gas: A naturally occurring radioactive gas.

• Asbestos: Common in occupational settings, linked to mesothelioma.

• Exposure to arsenic, diesel exhaust, and other carcinogens.

3. Air Pollution:

• Long-term exposure to polluted air increases lung cancer risk.

4. Genetic Factors:

• A family history of lung cancer can increase susceptibility.

5. Radiation Exposure:

• Previous radiation therapy to the chest.

6. Underlying Lung Disease:

• Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) or pulmonary fibrosis.

Symptoms
 

Lung cancer symptoms often appear in advanced stages and may include:
 

• Persistent cough that worsens over time.

• Blood in sputum (hemoptysis).

• Chest pain or discomfort.

• Shortness of breath or wheezing.

• Hoarseness of voice.

• Unintended weight loss and fatigue.

• Recurrent respiratory infections like pneumonia or bronchitis.

Advanced Symptoms:

• Bone pain (if cancer spreads to the bones).

• Neurological symptoms (e.g., headache, seizures, or weakness) if it spreads to the brain.

Diagnosis

Our diagnostic process utilizes advanced technologies including:
 

• Screening using low dose CT scan
• 64 SLICE- PET CT scan systems
• PET MRI for precise staging
• Molecular profiling for targeted therapy selection
• Minimally invasive biopsy procedures

Treatments 

Global treatment standards for lung cancer have evolved significantly, and Apollo stays at the forefront of these advancements. Treatment at Apollo integrates multiple modalities based on individual patient needs:

Surgical Innovations:

• Minimally invasive video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS)
• Robotic surgery using the da Vinci system
• Precision resection techniques
• Complex reconstructive procedures

Advanced Radiation Therapy:

The integration of proton therapy has revolutionized lung cancer treatment by:

• Delivering precise radiation doses to tumors while sparing healthy lung tissue
• Reducing radiation exposure to the heart
• Enabling treatment of previously challenging cases
• Improving outcomes for patients with limited lung function

Proton therapy in lung cancer treatment has revolutionized our approach, particularly for:

• Tumors near critical organs
• Cases requiring re-radiation
• Patients with limited lung function
• Early-stage lung cancers where surgery isn't optimal

Prevention
 

1. Avoid Smoking:

• The single most effective prevention strategy.

• Includes quitting smoking and avoiding secondhand smoke.
 

2. Minimize Exposure to Carcinogens:

• Test for radon in homes and workplaces.

• Use protective measures in occupational settings.
 

3. Healthy Lifestyle:

• Regular exercise and a diet rich in fruits and vegetables.

• Avoid air pollution when possible.
 

4. Regular Screening:

• Low-Dose CT Scans for high-risk individuals (e.g., heavy smokers over 50).

Read more about Lung Cancer

Colorectal cancer  is a type of cancer that starts in the colon (large intestine) or rectum, which together form the lower part of the digestive tract. It is one of the most common cancers worldwide and a leading cause of cancer-related deaths, but it is often curable if detected early.

Types of Colorectal Cancer
 

1. Adenocarcinoma:

• The most common type, accounting for more than 90% of cases.

• Begins in the mucus-producing cells lining the colon and rectum.
 

2. Other Rare Types:

• Neuroendocrine Tumors: Arise from hormone-producing cells.

• Gastrointestinal Stromal Tumors (GISTs): Start in the connective tissue.

• Lymphomas: Cancers of the immune system cells in the colon.

Risk Factors

Colorectal cancer is associated with a combination of genetic, environmental, and lifestyle factors.

Non-Modifiable Risk Factors:
 

• Age: Most cases occur in individuals over 50.

• Family History: Having a close relative with CRC increases the risk.

• Genetic Syndromes:

• Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP): Leads to hundreds of polyps and early-onset CRC.

• Lynch Syndrome: Increases the risk of CRC and other cancers.

• Personal History:

• Previous polyps or CRC.

• Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) like Crohn’s disease or ulcerative colitis.

Modifiable Risk Factors:
 

Diet:

• High consumption of red and processed meats.

• Low fiber intake.
 

Lifestyle:

• Sedentary behavior, obesity, smoking, and heavy alcohol use.
 

Diabetes and Insulin Resistance:

• Increased risk in individuals with poorly controlled diabetes.

Symptoms
 

Early-stage colorectal cancer often has no symptoms. As the disease progresses, common symptoms may include:
 

• Changes in bowel habits (e.g., diarrhea, constipation, or stool narrowing).

• Blood in the stool (bright red or dark).

• Persistent abdominal pain, cramping, or bloating.

• Fatigue or weakness.

• Unintended weight loss.

• Iron-deficiency anemia.

Diagnosis
 

1. Screening Tests:

• Fecal Occult Blood Test (FOBT) or Fecal Immunochemical Test (FIT):

• Detects blood in the stool.

• Colonoscopy:

• Gold standard for screening; allows direct visualization of the colon and removal of polyps.

• CT Colonography:

• Virtual colonoscopy using CT imaging.

• Stool DNA Test:

• Detects genetic changes linked to CRC.
 

2. Diagnostic Imaging:

• CT or MRI: Used to assess tumor spread.

• PET Scan: Detects metastasis.
 

3. Biopsy:

• Performed during a colonoscopy to confirm diagnosis.
 

4. Molecular Testing:

• Identifies mutations (e.g., KRAS, NRAS, BRAF, and MSI-H) to guide treatment decisions.

Staging
 

Colorectal cancer is staged using the TNM system:
 

• Stage 0: Cancer is confined to the inner lining of the colon or rectum.

• Stage I: Tumor has invaded the wall but not reached lymph nodes.

• Stage II: Tumor extends through the wall but has not spread to lymph nodes.

• Stage III: Cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes.

• Stage IV: Metastasis to distant organs, such as the liver or lungs.

Treatment Options
 

Treatment depends on the stage, location, and molecular profile of the cancer.
 

Surgery:

Early-Stage CRC:

• Polypectomy: Removal of polyps during colonoscopy.

• Local Excision: For small tumors in the rectum.
 

Advanced CRC:

• Colectomy: Removal of a portion of the colon with lymph nodes.

• Colostomy/Ileostomy: Temporary or permanent diversion of stool in some cases.

Apollo Cancer centres’ multidisciplinary approach includes:
 

• Minimally invasive surgical techniques
• Sphincter-preserving procedures
• Advanced reconstruction methods
• Targeted radiation therapy
• Chemotherapy protocols

Proton therapy applications for colorectal cancer is particularly beneficial for rectal cancer; proton therapy offers:
 

• Precise targeting of tumors
• Reduced bowel toxicity
• Better preservation of anal sphincter function
• Improved quality of life during treatment

Screening and Prevention
 

1. Screening Recommendations:

• Start at age 45 (earlier for high-risk individuals).

• Regular colonoscopies every 10 years for average-risk individuals.
 

2. Lifestyle Modifications:

• Healthy Diet: High in fiber, fruits, and vegetables; low in red/processed meats.

• Regular Exercise: Reduces risk.

• Avoid Smoking and Alcohol: Eliminating these habits lowers risk.
 

3. Genetic Counseling:

• For individuals with a family history or genetic syndromes.

Read more about Colorectal cancer

Prostate cancer is a type of cancer that develops in the prostate gland, a small, walnut-shaped gland in men responsible for producing seminal fluid. It is one of the most common cancers in men and often grows slowly, with many cases being asymptomatic for years. Early detection and treatment can lead to excellent outcomes, especially for localized disease.
 

Types of Prostate Cancer
 

1. Adenocarcinoma:

• The most common type, originating in the glandular cells that produce prostate fluid.

• Subtypes include:

• Acinar Adenocarcinoma (most common).

• Ductal Adenocarcinoma (more aggressive).

2. Rare Types:

• Small Cell Carcinoma: A rare, aggressive form of prostate cancer.

• Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Very uncommon and more aggressive.

• Transitional Cell Carcinoma: Starts in the urethra and can spread to the prostate.

Risk Factors
 

1. Age:

• Risk increases significantly after the age of 50, with most cases diagnosed in men over 65.
 

2. Family History:

• A family history of prostate cancer or genetic mutations like BRCA1 or BRCA2 increases risk.
 

3. Ethnicity:

• African American men have a higher risk and are more likely to develop aggressive forms of prostate cancer.
 

4. Diet and Lifestyle:

• High-fat diets, obesity, and sedentary lifestyles may contribute to increased risk.
 

5. Genetic Factors:

• Inherited genetic syndromes such as Lynch syndrome can elevate the risk.

Symptoms

Early-stage prostate cancer often causes no symptoms. As the disease progresses, symptoms may include:
 

• Frequent urination, especially at night.

• Weak or interrupted urine flow.

• Difficulty starting or stopping urination.

• Blood in the urine or semen.

• Erectile dysfunction.

• Pain or discomfort in the pelvic area or lower back (in advanced cases).

Diagnosis
 

1. Screening:

Prostate-Specific Antigen (PSA) Test:

• A blood test to measure PSA levels, which may be elevated in prostate cancer.
 

Digital Rectal Exam (DRE):

• A physical examination to feel for abnormalities in the prostate.

2. Imaging:

MRI:

• Provides detailed images of the prostate to locate tumors.
 

Ultrasound:

• Often used during biopsies to guide needle placement.

3. Biopsy:

• Core needle biopsy is the gold standard for confirming prostate cancer.

• Tissue samples are analyzed for cancer cells and graded using the Gleason Score.

4. Advanced Testing:

Molecular Tests:

• Identifies specific genetic mutations for targeted treatment.
 

Bone Scans or CT Scans:

• Detect metastasis in advanced stages.

Staging

Prostate cancer is staged using the TNM system:

• T (Tumor): Size and extent of the tumor within the prostate.

• N (Nodes): Involvement of nearby lymph nodes.

• M (Metastasis): Spread to distant organs (e.g., bones, lungs).

Additionally:

• Gleason Score:

Determines tumor aggressiveness on a scale of 6 to 10.
 

• Risk Groups:

Low-risk, intermediate-risk, and high-risk categories guide treatment decisions.

Treatment Options

Treatment depends on the stage, grade, patient’s overall health, and preferences.

Prevention

While not all cases of prostate cancer can be prevented, risk can be reduced through:
 

1. Healthy Lifestyle:

• A diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.

• Regular physical activity and maintaining a healthy weight.

2. Avoid Smoking:

• Reduces overall cancer risk.

3. Screening:

• Discuss with your doctor about PSA testing, particularly if you have risk factors.
 

Our comprehensive diagnosis and staging process includes multiple advanced techniques:
 

• PSA (Prostate-Specific Antigen) testing and monitoring
• Advanced imaging including multiparametric MRI
• PET-CT scans for precise staging
• Targeted prostate biopsies
• Genomic testing for risk assessment

Treatment at Apollo integrates multiple approaches based on individual cases:

• da Vinci Robotic Surgery for enhanced surgical precision
• Advanced radiation therapy options
• Hormone therapy with latest protocols
• Active surveillance for low-risk cases
• Focal therapy options

Proton Therapy represents a significant advancement in prostate cancer treatment, offering:

• Superior targeting with minimal side effects
• 60% reduction in radiation to surrounding healthy tissues
• 50% lower risk of secondary cancers
• Better preservation of urinary and sexual function

Improved quality of life during and after treatment

Read more about Prostate cancer

Thyroid cancer is a type of cancer that develops in the thyroid gland, a butterfly-shaped organ located at the base of the neck. The thyroid plays a critical role in regulating metabolism, heart rate, and body temperature through hormone production. Thyroid cancer is relatively rare compared to other cancers but has shown increasing incidence rates globally. Most thyroid cancers are highly treatable, especially when diagnosed early.
 

Types of Thyroid Cancer
 

1. Papillary Thyroid Cancer (PTC):

• The most common type, accounting for about 80-85% of cases.

• Usually grows slowly and has an excellent prognosis.

• Often spreads to nearby lymph nodes but is rarely fatal.
 

2. Follicular Thyroid Cancer (FTC):

• Accounts for about 10-15% of cases.

• More likely to spread to distant organs like the lungs or bones.

• A subtype, Hurthle cell carcinoma, is more aggressive.
 

3. Medullary Thyroid Cancer (MTC):

• Accounts for 3-5% of cases.

• Arises from C cells that produce calcitonin (a hormone involved in calcium regulation).

• Can occur sporadically or as part of genetic syndromes like Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia (MEN).
 

4. Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer (ATC):

• Rare, accounting for less than 2% of cases.

• Extremely aggressive and difficult to treat.

• Typically affects older individuals.
 

5. Thyroid Lymphoma:

• A rare type of non-Hodgkin lymphoma that arises in the thyroid.

Risk Factors
 

1. Non-Modifiable Risk Factors:

• Gender: More common in women than men.

• Age: Peaks in people aged 30-50 for papillary and follicular cancer; medullary and anaplastic types are more common in older individuals.

• Family History:

• Genetic mutations (e.g., RET proto-oncogene in medullary thyroid cancer).

• A family history of thyroid cancer or genetic syndromes like MEN2.
 

2. Modifiable Risk Factors:

• Radiation Exposure:

Previous radiation therapy to the neck or exposure to nuclear fallout.
 

• Iodine Deficiency/Excess:

Iodine levels can influence the risk of follicular and papillary thyroid cancers.
 

3. Underlying Thyroid Disorders:

• Chronic thyroiditis (Hashimoto’s thyroiditis) increases the risk of thyroid lymphoma.

Symptoms

Many thyroid cancers are asymptomatic in early stages and are discovered during routine neck examinations or imaging for other reasons. Common symptoms include:
 

• A lump or swelling in the neck.

• Difficulty swallowing or breathing.

• Hoarseness or voice changes.

• Persistent cough not related to a respiratory infection.

• Swollen lymph nodes in the neck.

Advanced Symptoms:

• Pain in the neck or throat.

• Symptoms of metastasis (e.g., bone pain or difficulty breathing due to lung involvement).

Staging

Thyroid cancer is staged using the TNM system:

• T: Size and extent of the primary tumor.

• N: Spread to regional lymph nodes.

• M: Presence of distant metastases.

Stages range from Stage I (localized) to Stage IV (advanced/metastatic).

Our comprehensive evaluation process includes:

• Expert physical examination
• Advanced ultrasound imaging by specialized sonologists
• Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology (FNAC)
• Molecular testing for genetic markers
• Advanced imaging with CT, MRI, and PET scanning
• Blood calcitonin and calcium level testing

Treatment approaches are tailored to each patient's specific condition:

• Total or partial thyroidectomy with precision techniques
• Minimally invasive surgical approaches
• Advanced surgical navigation systems
• Radioactive iodine therapy
• Targeted molecular therapies
• Hormone replacement therapy

Proton Therapy offers significant advantages in thyroid cancer treatment:

• Higher precision in targeting tumor cells
• Reduced radiation to vital structures like esophagus and trachea
• Minimal impact on swallowing and speech
• Better preservation of quality of life
• Reduced risk of secondary complications

Prognosis

• Papillary and Follicular Thyroid Cancer:

Excellent prognosis with a 5-year survival rate of >95%, especially in early stages.
 

• Medullary Thyroid Cancer:

Prognosis depends on early detection and genetic factors.
 

• Anaplastic Thyroid Cancer:

Poor prognosis with a 5-year survival rate of <10% due to rapid progression.

Prevention and Risk Reduction

1. Avoid Radiation Exposure:

• Minimize unnecessary radiation to the neck, especially in children.
 

2. Maintain Iodine Balance:

• Adequate iodine intake through diet or supplements.
 

3. Genetic Counseling:

• For individuals with a family history or genetic predisposition (e.g., MEN2 syndrome).
 

4. Early Evaluation of Thyroid Nodules:

• Regular check-ups for individuals at risk.

Read more about Thyroid cancer

Hematological cancers are broadly categorized into three main types:
 

1. Leukemia:

Affects the bone marrow and blood, leading to the overproduction of abnormal white blood cells.
 

Types:

• Acute Leukemia: Progresses rapidly (e.g., Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia - ALL, Acute Myeloid Leukemia - AML).

• Chronic Leukemia: Develops slowly over time (e.g., Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia - CLL, Chronic Myeloid Leukemia - CML).

2. Lymphoma:

Affects the lymphatic system, including lymph nodes, spleen, and other lymphatic tissues.
 

Types:

• Hodgkin Lymphoma (HL): Characterized by Reed-Sternberg cells.

• Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL): Includes a wide range of subtypes like diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) and follicular lymphoma.

3. Multiple Myeloma:

Affects plasma cells in the bone marrow, leading to the overproduction of abnormal proteins and weakening of bones.

Risk Factors
 

The exact causes of hematological cancers are not fully understood, but several risk factors are associated with their development:
 

Genetic Factors:

• Family history of blood cancers.

• Genetic mutations such as Philadelphia chromosome in CML.
 

Environmental Exposures:

• Radiation exposure.

• Chemical exposure (e.g., benzene).
 

Viral Infections:

• Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are linked to certain lymphomas.
 

Immune System Disorders:

• Autoimmune diseases or immunosuppression (e.g., after organ transplant).
 

Age and Gender:

• Some types (e.g., CLL) are more common in older adults, while others (e.g., ALL) are prevalent in children.

Symptoms

Symptoms vary depending on the type of blood cancer but may include:

• Persistent fatigue or weakness.

• Frequent infections or fevers.

• Unexplained weight loss.

• Easy bruising or bleeding.

• Enlarged lymph nodes, spleen, or liver.

• Bone pain (common in multiple myeloma).

• Night sweats.

Diagnosis

Hematological cancers are diagnosed through a combination of tests, including:
 

1. Blood Tests:

• Complete Blood Count (CBC) to check for abnormalities in blood cells.

• Serum protein electrophoresis for multiple myeloma.
 

2. Bone Marrow Biopsy:

• Examines the bone marrow for abnormal cells.
 

3. Imaging:

• CT, PET, or MRI scans to detect lymph node involvement or organ enlargement.
 

4. Cytogenetic Testing:

• Identifies genetic abnormalities, such as translocations or mutations.
 

5. Flow Cytometry:

• Analyzes specific markers on blood or bone marrow cells.

Treatment Options

Treatment depends on the type, stage, and patient’s overall health. Common options include:
 

1. Chemotherapy:

• Uses drugs to kill rapidly dividing cancer cells.

• Often a first-line treatment for leukemia and lymphoma.
 

2. Radiation Therapy:

• Targets specific areas, such as affected lymph nodes or bone marrow.
 

3. Targeted Therapy:

• Drugs like imatinib (for CML) or monoclonal antibodies (e.g., rituximab for NHL) target specific molecules involved in cancer growth.
 

4. Immunotherapy:

• Includes CAR-T cell therapy, immune checkpoint inhibitors, or vaccines to boost the immune system’s response.
 

5. Stem Cell Transplantation:

• Autologous (using the patient’s own cells) or allogeneic (from a donor) transplant to replace damaged bone marrow.
 

6. Supportive Care:

• Blood transfusions, antibiotics, and growth factors to manage symptoms and side effects.

Prognosis

The prognosis varies depending on:
 

• Cancer type (e.g., acute vs. chronic).

• Stage at diagnosis.

• Patient’s age and overall health.

• Response to treatment.
 

Advancements in targeted therapies and immunotherapy have significantly improved survival rates for many hematological cancers.

Types of Bone Cancers

Bone cancers are classified based on the type of cells involved and their origin:
 

1. Primary Bone Cancers:

These originate in the bone itself and include:
 

Osteosarcoma:

• The most common type of bone cancer.

• Occurs primarily in children and young adults.

• Typically affects the long bones, such as the femur, tibia, and humerus.
 

Ewing Sarcoma:

• A rare and aggressive cancer, often found in teenagers and young adults.

• Commonly affects the pelvis, chest wall, and long bones.
 

Chondrosarcoma:

• Develops in cartilage cells.

• Typically affects adults over 40 years of age.

• Commonly occurs in the pelvis, thigh, and shoulder.
 

Chordoma:

• A rare cancer that occurs in the spine or base of the skull.
 

2. Secondary (Metastatic) Bone Cancers:

• These cancers spread to the bones from other parts of the body, such as the breast, prostate, lung, kidney, or thyroid.

• Metastatic bone cancers are more common than primary bone cancers.

Causes and Risk Factors

The exact cause of bone cancer is unknown, but several factors can increase the risk:
 

Genetic Mutations:

• Inherited conditions such as Li-Fraumeni syndrome, Paget’s disease of the bone, or hereditary retinoblastoma.
 

Radiation Exposure:

• High doses of radiation therapy may increase the risk of developing bone cancer.
 

Previous Cancer:

• Individuals with a history of cancer, particularly in childhood, are at greater risk.
 

Age and Gender:

• Osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma are more common in children and young adults, while chondrosarcoma typically occurs in older adults.

Symptoms

Symptoms of bone cancer vary depending on its type and location but may include:
 

Bone Pain:

• Persistent or worsening pain, especially at night or during activity.
 

Swelling and Tenderness:

• Near the affected bone or joint.
 

Fractures:

• Weakened bones may fracture with minimal trauma.
 

Fatigue:

• A common symptom in advanced stages.
 

Unexplained Weight Loss:

• Associated with systemic effects of cancer.

Diagnosis

Bone cancers are diagnosed through a combination of clinical evaluation and advanced diagnostic tests:
 

1. Imaging Studies:

• X-rays: Often the first step to detect bone abnormalities.

• MRI Scans: Provide detailed images of the bone and surrounding tissues.

• CT Scans: Help determine the extent of cancer spread.

• Bone Scans: Detect areas of abnormal bone activity.
 

2. Biopsy:

• A tissue sample is taken to confirm the diagnosis and identify the type of bone cancer.
 

3. Blood Tests:

• Certain cancers may cause elevated markers like alkaline phosphatase or lactate dehydrogenase (LDH).
 

4. PET Scans:

• Used to identify metastasis and assess the entire body.

Treatment Options

Treatment for bone cancer depends on the type, stage, location, and overall health of the patient. Common options include:
 

1. Surgery:

Limb-Salvage Surgery:

• Removes the tumor while preserving the limb and reconstructing the bone.
 

Amputation:

• Performed in cases where the tumor cannot be removed without compromising limb function.
 

Reconstructive Surgery:

• Uses prosthetics or grafts to restore function after tumor removal.
 

2. Chemotherapy:

• Effective for cancers like osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma.

• Often used before surgery (neoadjuvant) to shrink the tumor or after surgery (adjuvant) to eliminate residual cancer cells.
 

3. Radiation Therapy:

• Used for cancers like Ewing sarcoma or for symptom control in metastatic bone cancers.

• Proton Beam Therapy: A precise form of radiation therapy, minimizing damage to surrounding tissues.
 

4. Targeted Therapy:

• Drugs that target specific molecular pathways, such as tyrosine kinase inhibitors for certain cancers.
 

5. Immunotherapy:

• Boosts the body’s immune system to fight cancer cells.

Prognosis

The prognosis for bone cancer depends on several factors, including:
 

Type of Cancer:

• Osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma have better outcomes with early diagnosis and treatment.

• Chondrosarcoma tends to have a slower progression.

• Stage:

Localized cancers have a higher survival rate compared to metastatic cancers.

• Age and Overall Health:

Younger, healthier patients typically respond better to treatment.
 

Living with Bone Cancer

Patients with bone cancer often require long-term follow-up care to monitor for recurrence, manage side effects, and address functional issues. Physical rehabilitation, psychological support, and nutritional care are essential components of recovery and improving quality of life.

Read more about Bone cancer

Sarcoma types include:

• Soft tissue sarcomas
• Retroperitoneal sarcomas
• Bone sarcomas (osteosarcoma, Ewing's sarcoma)
• Gastrointestinal stromal tumors (GIST)

Advanced Treatment Approaches:

• Limb-sparing surgical techniques
• Complex reconstructive procedures
• Targeted molecular therapies
• Innovative radiation protocols

Proton therapy for sarcomas has shown remarkable results, Our proton therapy program offers particular advantages for sarcoma patients:

• Precise treatment of tumors near critical structures
• Reduced risk to the growing bones in pediatric cases
• Better local control rates
• Option for re-treatment in recurrent cases

Read more Sarcoma

Advanced Treatment Options:

• Minimally invasive surgical procedures
• Targeted therapy protocols
• Stem cell transplantation
• Proton therapy integration

Proton therapy advantages in pediatric cancers are particularly noteworthy:

• Reduced radiation exposure to healthy tissues
• Lower risk of secondary cancers
• Better preservation of growth and development
• Improved cognitive outcomes
• Minimal impact on vital organs

Support Services:

We provide comprehensive support including:

• Pediatric counseling services
• Nutritional guidance
• Educational support during treatment
• Play therapy programs
• Family support groups

Long-term Care Considerations:

Our program emphasizes:

• Regular monitoring of growth and development
• Cognitive function assessment
• Endocrine system evaluation
• Fertility preservation when applicable
• Psychosocial support
• Educational and vocational guidance

Read more about Pediatric cancer

Global treatment trends in neuro-oncology that we incorporate include:

• Advanced surgical navigation systems
• Molecular targeted therapies
• Innovative radiation techniques
• Novel drug delivery systems

Proton therapy benefits in brain tumor treatment are particularly significant:

• Superior dose distribution
• Better protection of cognitive function
• Reduced risk to optic structures
• Improved quality of life outcomes

Read more about brain tumors 

Overview of Head and Neck Cancers

Head and neck cancers are a group of cancers that develop in the tissues and organs of the head and neck region, including the mouth, throat, nose, sinuses, and salivary glands. Most of these cancers are squamous cell carcinomas, which originate in the mucosal linings of these areas. Early diagnosis and multidisciplinary care are essential for effective treatment and improved outcomes.
 

Types of Head and Neck Cancers

Head and neck cancers are classified based on their location:
 

1. Oral Cavity Cancer:

• Includes cancers of the lips, tongue, floor of the mouth, gums, inner cheek, and the roof of the mouth.
 

2. Pharyngeal Cancer:

• Affects the pharynx (throat), divided into:

• Nasopharynx: Upper part behind the nose.

• Oropharynx: Middle part, including the tonsils and base of the tongue.

• Hypopharynx: Lower part near the esophagus.

3. Laryngeal Cancer:

• Develops in the larynx (voice box), which houses the vocal cords.

4. Salivary Gland Cancer:

• A rare type affecting the glands that produce saliva, such as the parotid, submandibular, and sublingual glands.

5. Nasal Cavity and Paranasal Sinus Cancer:

• Cancers in the space inside the nose and the surrounding sinuses.

6. Thyroid Cancer:

• Though often considered separately, thyroid cancer is sometimes included in head and neck cancers due to its location.

Risk Factors

The risk factors for head and neck cancers include:
 

1. Tobacco and Alcohol Use:

• Smoking and chewing tobacco are the most significant risk factors.

• Heavy alcohol consumption further increases risk, especially when combined with tobacco use.
 

2. Human Papillomavirus (HPV):

• HPV infection, particularly HPV-16, is a leading cause of oropharyngeal cancers.
 

3. Poor Oral Hygiene:

• Chronic irritation and infections in the oral cavity increase the risk.
 

4. Exposure to Carcinogens:

• Occupational exposure to asbestos, wood dust, and certain chemicals.
 

5. Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV):

• Associated with nasopharyngeal cancer.
 

6. Diet and Nutrition:

• Diets low in fruits and vegetables may increase risk.
 

7. Radiation Exposure:

• Prior radiation to the head and neck region increases the likelihood of developing cancer.
 

8. Age and Gender:

• More common in men and individuals over 50 years of age.

Symptoms

Symptoms depend on the location of the cancer but may include:
 

General Symptoms:

• Persistent lumps or swelling in the neck or face.

• Difficulty swallowing or persistent sore throat.

• Voice changes or hoarseness.

• Unexplained weight loss.

• Fatigue.
 

Location-Specific Symptoms:

• Oral Cavity: Non-healing sores, bleeding, or white/red patches in the mouth.

• Pharynx: Pain when swallowing, ear pain, or a sensation of something stuck in the throat.

• Larynx: Hoarseness, breathing difficulties, or persistent cough.

• Nasal Cavity/Sinuses: Nasal congestion, nosebleeds, or facial pain.

• Salivary Glands: Swelling in the jaw, facial numbness, or difficulty opening the mouth.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis involves a combination of physical exams, imaging, and biopsy:
 

1. Clinical Examination:

• Inspection and palpation of the head and neck region for lumps or abnormalities.
 

2. Imaging Studies:

• CT Scans and MRI: Provide detailed views of tumors and their extent.

• PET Scans: Detect metastases and assess treatment response.

• Ultrasound: Commonly used for thyroid and salivary gland tumors.
 

3. Endoscopy:

• Visualization of the throat, nasal cavity, or larynx with a flexible scope.
 

4. Biopsy:

• Tissue samples are analyzed to confirm the cancer type.
 

5. Molecular Testing:

• Identifies HPV or EBV involvement, guiding treatment planning.

Staging

Head and neck cancers are staged using the TNM system:

• T: Size and extent of the primary tumor.

• N: Spread to nearby lymph nodes.

• M: Presence of distant metastasis.
 

Stages range from Stage I (localized) to Stage IV (advanced or metastatic).

Treatment Options

Treatment depends on the type, stage, and location of the cancer, as well as the patient’s overall health:
 

1. Surgery:

Tumor Resection:

• Removes the tumor with a margin of healthy tissue.
 

Lymph Node Dissection:

• Removes affected lymph nodes in the neck.
 

Reconstructive Surgery:

• Restores function and appearance using grafts or prosthetics.
 

2. Radiation Therapy:

• Used alone or in combination with surgery or chemotherapy.
 

Advanced techniques include:

• Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) for precise targeting.

• Proton Therapy to minimize damage to healthy tissues.
 

3. Chemotherapy:

• Often used for advanced-stage cancers.

• Combined with radiation (chemoradiation) for better outcomes.
 

4. Targeted Therapy:

• Drugs like cetuximab target the EGFR protein found in some head and neck cancers.
 

5. Immunotherapy:

• Checkpoint inhibitors like nivolumab or pembrolizumab are effective for recurrent or metastatic cancers.
 

6. Palliative Care:

• Focuses on managing symptoms like pain, difficulty swallowing, or breathing in advanced cases.

Prognosis

The prognosis for head and neck cancers depends on:
 

• Type and Location: Nasopharyngeal and salivary gland cancers often have distinct prognoses.

• Stage: Early-stage cancers (Stage I-II) have better outcomes.
 

Read more about head & neck cancer

Overview of Gastrointestinal (GI) Cancers

Gastrointestinal (GI) cancers refer to a group of cancers that affect the digestive system, including the esophagus, stomach, pancreas, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, colon, rectum, and anus. These cancers are among the most common and can vary significantly in their causes, symptoms, and treatments. Early detection and treatment are crucial for improving outcomes.

Types of Gastrointestinal Cancers

The main types of GI cancers include:
 

1. Esophageal Cancer:

• Affects the esophagus, the tube connecting the throat to the stomach.
 

Two primary types:

• Squamous Cell Carcinoma: Affects the lining of the esophagus.

• Adenocarcinoma: Develops in glandular cells, often near the stomach.
 

2. Stomach (Gastric) Cancer:

• Originates in the stomach lining.

• Often associated with Helicobacter pylori infection or dietary factors.
 

3. Liver Cancer:

• Includes Hepatocellular Carcinoma (HCC), the most common type, originating in liver cells.

• Often linked to chronic hepatitis B/C infections, cirrhosis, or alcohol abuse.
 

4. Pancreatic Cancer:

• Affects the pancreas, an organ involved in digestion and blood sugar regulation.

• Pancreatic adenocarcinoma is the most common type and has a high mortality rate due to late diagnosis.
 

5. Gallbladder and Biliary Tract Cancer:

• Rare cancers affecting the gallbladder and bile ducts.

• Often linked to gallstones or chronic inflammation.
 

6. Small Intestine Cancer:

• Rare cancer that affects the small intestine.

• Includes types like adenocarcinoma, lymphoma, and neuroendocrine tumors.
 

7. Colorectal Cancer (Colon and Rectal Cancer):

• One of the most common GI cancers.

• Often develops from precancerous polyps in the colon or rectum.
 

8. Anal Cancer:

• Affects the anus and is often associated with human papillomavirus (HPV) infection.

Risk Factors

The risk factors for GI cancers vary by type but include:
 

1. Lifestyle Factors:

• Smoking and alcohol consumption.

• High-fat, low-fiber diets.

• Processed and red meat consumption.
 

2. Chronic Infections:

• Helicobacter pylori infection increases the risk of stomach cancer.

• Hepatitis B and C are linked to liver cancer.

• HPV infection increases the risk of anal cancer.
 

3. Family History and Genetics:

• Inherited syndromes like Lynch syndrome or Familial Adenomatous Polyposis (FAP) increase the risk of colorectal cancer.

• BRCA mutations can increase the risk of pancreatic cancer.
 

4. Underlying Conditions:

• Chronic inflammation (e.g., Crohn’s disease or ulcerative colitis).

• Cirrhosis of the liver.
 

5. Age:

• Risk increases with age for most GI cancers.
 

6. Obesity:

• Associated with increased risk of esophageal, liver, pancreatic, and colorectal cancers.

Symptoms

Symptoms of GI cancers vary depending on the organ affected but may include:
 

General Symptoms:

• Unintended weight loss.

• Fatigue.

• Loss of appetite.
 

Organ-Specific Symptoms:

• Esophageal Cancer:

Difficulty swallowing (dysphagia).

Chest pain or discomfort.

• Stomach Cancer:

 Indigestion or persistent stomach pain.

 Nausea and vomiting, sometimes with blood.

• Liver Cancer:

 Jaundice (yellowing of skin and eyes).

 Swelling in the abdomen.

• Pancreatic Cancer:

 Back pain.

 Dark urine and pale stools.

• Colorectal Cancer:

 Blood in stool.

 Changes in bowel habits (diarrhea or constipation).

Diagnosis

Diagnosis involves a combination of clinical evaluation and advanced diagnostic techniques:
 

1. Imaging Studies:

• CT scans, MRI, and PET scans to assess tumor size and spread.

• Ultrasound, especially for liver and pancreatic cancers.
 

2. Endoscopy:

• Upper Endoscopy for esophageal and stomach cancers.

• Colonoscopy for colorectal cancer.
 

3. Biopsy:

• Tissue samples are taken for histopathological examination to confirm the diagnosis.
 

4. Blood Tests:

• Tumor Markers:

• Carcinoembryonic Antigen (CEA): Used in colorectal and pancreatic cancers.

• Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP): For liver cancer.

• CA 19-9: For pancreatic and bile duct cancers.
 

5. Molecular and Genetic Testing:

• Identifies mutations to guide targeted therapy.

Treatment Options

Treatment depends on the type, stage, and location of the cancer, as well as the patient’s overall health.
 

1. Surgery:

• Curative Surgery:

Removes the tumor and affected lymph nodes.

• Palliative Surgery:

Relieves symptoms in advanced cases.
 

2. Radiation Therapy:

• Used before or after surgery or for symptom control.

• Techniques like Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT) and Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy (SBRT) improve precision.
 

3. Chemotherapy:

• Systemic drugs to kill cancer cells.

• Used alone or in combination with surgery and radiation.
 

4. Targeted Therapy:

• Drugs that target specific genetic mutations or proteins:

• HER2 inhibitors for stomach cancer.

• VEGF inhibitors for colorectal cancer.
 

5. Immunotherapy:

• Drugs like immune checkpoint inhibitors (e.g., nivolumab, pembrolizumab) boost the immune response.
 

6. Palliative Care:

• Focuses on relieving symptoms like pain, nausea, and fatigue in advanced stages.

Prevention and Early Detection

1. Lifestyle Changes:

• Quit smoking and limit alcohol consumption.

• Maintain a healthy diet rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains.
 

2. Screening:

• Colonoscopy for colorectal cancer starting at age 45.

• Endoscopic screenings for high-risk individuals (e.g., Barrett’s esophagus, family history).
 

3. Vaccination:

• Hepatitis B vaccine to prevent liver cancer.

• HPV vaccine to prevent anal and some other cancers.
 

4. Regular Checkups:

• Especially for individuals with risk factors or family history.

Prognosis

The prognosis depends on:
 

• Cancer Type: Pancreatic cancer typically has a poorer prognosis compared to colorectal or early-stage gastric cancer.

• Stage: Early detection significantly improves survival rates.

• Treatment Response: Newer targeted and immunotherapies are improving outcomes.

Gynecological cancers refer to cancers that develop in a woman’s reproductive organs. These cancers differ in symptoms, risk factors, and treatment approaches but require early diagnosis and comprehensive care for better outcomes.
 

Types of Gynecological Cancers

Gynecological cancers are categorized based on the organ they affect:

1. Cervical Cancer:

• Originates in the cervix (the lower part of the uterus).

• Often caused by persistent infection with human papillomavirus (HPV).

• Early detection is possible through Pap smears and HPV testing.
 

2. Ovarian Cancer:

• Affects the ovaries and includes several subtypes:

• Epithelial ovarian cancer (most common).

• Germ cell tumors and sex cord-stromal tumors (rare types).

• Often detected at later stages due to vague symptoms.
 

3. Endometrial (Uterine) Cancer:

• Develops in the lining of the uterus (endometrium).

• Linked to hormonal imbalances, obesity, and conditions like polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
 

4. Vaginal Cancer:

• A rare cancer originating in the vaginal lining.

• Associated with HPV infection in many cases.
 

5. Vulvar Cancer:

• Affects the external female genitalia.

• Often linked to HPV or chronic inflammatory conditions.
 

6. Gestational Trophoblastic Neoplasia (GTN):

• A rare group of cancers that develop from abnormal placental cells during pregnancy.

Risk Factors

The risk factors for gynecological cancers vary depending on the type but include:
 

1. Infections:

• Persistent HPV infection is a major risk factor for cervical, vaginal, and vulvar cancers.

• HIV increases the risk due to immune suppression.
 

2. Hormonal Factors:

• Prolonged exposure to estrogen without progesterone (e.g., in obesity or hormone replacement therapy).

• Early menstruation or late menopause.
 

3. Family History and Genetics:

• BRCA1 and BRCA2 mutations increase the risk of ovarian and breast cancers.

• Lynch syndrome raises the risk of endometrial and ovarian cancers.
 

4. Lifestyle Factors:

• Smoking.

• Poor diet and lack of physical activity.
 

5. Age:

• The risk increases with age, especially for endometrial and ovarian cancers.
 

6. Others:

• Immune suppression, previous radiation therapy, or exposure to diethylstilbestrol (DES).

Symptoms

Symptoms vary by cancer type and may not appear until advanced stages. Common symptoms include:
 

Cervical Cancer:

• Abnormal vaginal bleeding (e.g., after intercourse, between periods, or after menopause).

• Unusual vaginal discharge.

• Pelvic pain.
 

Ovarian Cancer:

• Persistent bloating or abdominal swelling.

• Difficulty eating or feeling full quickly.

• Pelvic or abdominal pain.
 

Endometrial Cancer:

• Vaginal bleeding after menopause.

• Heavy or irregular periods.

• Pelvic pain.
 

Vaginal and Vulvar Cancers:

• Itching or pain in the vulva.

• Changes in vulvar skin (e.g., sores or growths).

• Abnormal vaginal bleeding or discharge.

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of gynecological cancers involves a combination of tests:
 

1. Screening and Routine Exams:

• Pap Smear: Detects precancerous changes in cervical cells.

• HPV Testing: Identifies high-risk HPV infections.
 

2. Imaging Studies:

• Ultrasound (pelvic or transvaginal): Evaluates abnormalities in the uterus and ovaries.

• MRI, CT, or PET Scans: Used to assess cancer spread.
 

3. Biopsy:

• Confirms the diagnosis by examining tissue samples.
 

4. Blood Tests:

• Tumor markers like CA-125 for ovarian cancer or hCG for GTN.
 

5. Hysteroscopy or Colposcopy:

• Visualizes abnormalities in the uterus or cervix.

Treatment Options

Treatment varies based on the type, stage, and patient’s overall health:
 

1. Surgery:

• Hysterectomy (removal of the uterus) for endometrial cancer.

• Oophorectomy (removal of ovaries) for ovarian cancer.

• Radical surgeries like pelvic exenteration for advanced cervical cancer.

• Minimally invasive surgeries like robotic-assisted surgery.
 

2. Radiation Therapy:

• External Beam Radiation Therapy (EBRT) or Brachytherapy for cervical, vaginal, and vulvar cancers.